Although social learning (the acquisition of specific behaviors by observing other individuals exhibiting those behaviors) is well documented among fish, few studies have investigated social learning within a developmental context in these taxa. Rather than investigating the development of a particular skill, Chapman, Ward, and Krause investigated the role of group density during development in later foraging success in laboratory-housed guppies. When raised with a small number of conspecifics (members of the same species), guppies were quicker to locate food by following a trained adult guppy than were guppies raised in large groups. This counterintuitive finding is explained by the fact that guppies reared in the high-density condition were less likely to shoal (swim in a group) with others and, therefore, were less likely to learn the benefits of social learning. Instead, fish reared in high-density situations may learn that conspecifics are to be viewed as competitors, rather than as potential sources of adaptive information. This finding suggests that at least for guppies, the early social environment may have an effect on the capacity for social learning, if not on the socially learned behaviors themselves.
文章解析
第一句话:
Although social learning (the acquisition of specific behaviors by observing other individuals exhibiting those behaviors) is well documented among fish, few studies have investigated social learning within a developmental context in these taxa.
白话版讲解:
尽管此前已经较好地用书面或照片形式记录了在各种鱼类中存在“社会性学习行为”,但是把鱼的“社会性学习行为”放到developmental context里面去研究的研究,却很少。
鱼的“社会性学习行为”是什么意思?比如有一个鱼群,一条鱼会绕着珊瑚连转八圈找食物(这是一种foraging的技术),旁边的其他鱼看到了,也学会了。这个就叫鱼的“社会性学习”。和“社会性学习”相对的还有哪些学习呢?比如遗传性学习。中文有个俗语“老鼠的儿子会打洞”,说的就是遗传性学习。一只老鼠会打洞,往往是因为打洞的技术是遗传的,而不是老鼠自己从朋友同伴那里学会的。也就是是说,可能有很多动物是不会从朋友同伴那里学东西的,只会靠遗传。所以鱼的“社会性学习”,还值得科学家去document(记录),证明鱼会这个(有的动物是不会的)。
为什么developmental context不翻译呢,因为翻译成“发展的背景”也是白翻,我们只看第一句话,不往下看,是无法搞清楚这句话里的developmental context是什么意思的。所以不着急翻译,我们接着往下看。
第二句话:
Rather than investigating the development of a particular skill, Chapman, Ward, and Krause investigated the role of group density during development in later foraging success in laboratory-housed guppies.
白话版讲解:
Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人(的研究跟其他科学家不同),他们不去研究鱼是怎样学会(develop)某个具体技能的(言下之意是以前的很多研究都是聚焦于“社会性学习”的具体过程),而是(重点)研究guppy这种鱼的成长过程中所处的鱼群的密度对guppies长大后捕食的成功率的影响。(另外,他们是在实验室里拿guppy做的研究)。
第三句话:
When raised with a small number of conspecifics (members of the same species), guppies were quicker to locate food by following a trained adult guppy than were guppies raised in large groups.
白话版讲解:
CWK三人的实验发现,如果guppy是在一个总鱼数较小的群体里养大,长大以后,让它们跟着一个会找食物的鱼去学找食物的技能,就学得好一些;如果guppy是在一个总鱼数较大的群体里养大,就学得差一些。
看完这句话。我们才知道原来第一句话中的development是指鱼从小鱼长成大鱼这个过程。(而第二句话的第一个development的意思则不同,意思是“鱼从不会一项技能到学会一项技能”这个过程)。看完第二句话和第三句话,我们知道了CWK三人的实验过程。即,找很多guppy来放到实验室来做实验,把guppies分成两组,一组放在一个小群里长大,另一组放在一个大群里长大。等两组guppies都长大后,找两条经过人的训练,已经会(比如绕着珊瑚连转八圈)找食物(这是一种foraging的技术)的鱼(这个鱼的foraging技术是人教的,不是鱼教的),一条放进第一组,一条放进第二组,看两组鱼能不能学会新进来的鱼的foraging技术。实验结果是,两组都能学,第一组鱼比第二组鱼学得好一些。
第四句话:
This counterintuitive finding is explained by the fact that guppies reared in the high-density condition were less likely to shoal (swim in a group) with others and, therefore, were less likely to learn the benefits of social learning.
白话版讲解:
(我们的直觉是在大群里长大的鱼应该学习能力更强,比如人,我们的直觉好像是在人群密集的都市长大的孩子,比在人群稀疏的地方长大的孩子,学习新技能的能力应该强一些。)所以当实验发现在小群长大的guppies学习能力更强时,这就是反直觉(counterintuitive)的。研究者用一个fact对此进行了解释,即,在大群长大的guppies有一个习惯,就是不太跟同伴结伴成群一起游一起玩,所以在大群长大的guppies反而不太可能知道(learn)原来向其他鱼学一些行为是可以带来很多好处的。这里这句话里的learn和learning是完全不同的意思。第一个learn的意思是“得知、获悉”(become aware of something)的意思。
注解:
shoal n.一群成群游动的鱼(a large number of fish swimming together)
vi.结成鱼群一起游动(form shoals)
第五句话:
Instead, fish reared in high-density situations may learn that conspecifics are to be viewed as competitors, rather than as potential sources of adaptive information.
白话版讲解:
adaptive information指的就是新技能,大群里长大的鱼觉得跟别的鱼一起shoal并不能帮助自己解锁新技能(rather than as potential sources of adaptive information)。它们都只想着竞争,只会提防别人,不把其他鱼看成是可以释放出adaptive information的sources。
第六句话:
This finding suggests that at least for guppies, the early social environment may have an effect on the capacity for social learning, if not on the socially learned behaviors themselves.
白话版讲解:
总之呢,这个结果表明,别的鱼是什么情况不知道,至少对guppy这种鱼来说,可以得出这样一个结论:guppies小时候在什么样的社会环境(大群还是小群)中长大,对其长大后从别的鱼身上学习新技能的能力是有影响的(在大群中长大,就很可能根本没有能力从同伴那里学新技能);甚至可能对那些行为本身,也有影响(在大群中长大,就算学会了新技能,也可能学走样)。
注解:
if not[用于接着提出更极端的说法]甚至可能 perhaps even (used to introduce a more extreme term than one first mentioned)
例句:
There they found hundreds if not thousands of germs.
在那里他们发现了数以百计甚至可能数以千计的细菌。
题目解析
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
A. note a flaw in a scientific finding
B. describe a particular scientific study
C. present an interpretation of a finding
D. note a difference between two scientific findings
E. contrast two conditions in which a particular phenomenon has been observed
题目问整个passage的目的是什么?
我们先用白话概括一下全文:
之前很多研究把「鱼会向同伴学习技能」这个事都记录得比较好,应该是确实存在social learning这么个现象。但是鱼从小长大的环境对“鱼长大了能不能向同伴学习技能”有没有影响,还没人研究过。Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人首次在实验室搞了这种研究。结果表明,在大群(group)长大的鱼,反而不搞shoal,所以长大以后反而不太能向同伴学习技能。
再简化一下:
以前的研究已经有很多了,但是从developmental context这个角度去研究的,却没有。Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人搞了一个研究,就是从developmental context这个角度去研究的,研究结果是……。
所以选B,描述一个研究。
2. Regarding research on fish, it can be inferred from the passage that
A. research studies of the acquisition of important skills by fish have only recently begun to document the role of conspecifics in the learning process.
B. research on social learning in guppies suggests that guppies differ in important ways from most other fish in the means by which they learn particular skills.
C. research on social learning in fish has generally focused on the acquisition of skills other than foraging.
D. research has established that social learning occurs in some fish species without investigating the development context in which it occurs.
E. research to investigate social learning has been done more extensively on fish than on other aquatic animals.
白话版讲解:
A)以前关于鱼向同伴学习的研究最近才开始记录在学习过程中那些(被学习)的同伴的角色(以前都不记录)。文章第一句话的other individuals说的就是conspecifics,文章没有说对学的那个鱼就well documented了,对被学的那个鱼就不是well documented了,所以A选项错误。
B)文章没有提到guppies和其他种类的鱼有什么不同。所以B选项错误。
C)研究一直以来都是聚焦于鱼是怎样习得其他技能,而不是聚焦于与鱼怎样习得搜寻食物的技能。文章提到的研究,正是关于foraging的研究,文章没有提到其他技能。所以C选项错误。请注意选项中acquisition的意思是“(技能、习惯或品质的)习得”(the learning or developing of a skill, habit, or quality)。
D)科学家们的研究已经证实鱼确实会发生社会性学习行为,不过科学家们到目前为止并没有探究鱼的成长背景。这句话用的是现在完成时,和文章第一句话的时态是一样的。为什么用现在完成时呢,就是在CWK三人的实验之前,还没有从鱼的成长背景来研究的;从别的角度研究的,已经有了。
E)文章没有说对鱼的研究,要比对其他水生动物的研究多。所以E错误。
3. Which of the following can be inferred about the study by Chapman, Ward, and Krause?
A. It was initially designed to investigate something other than social learning.
B. It required researchers to observe individual guppies at multiple points in their life spans.
C. It pointed to the possibility that population density may have little to do with guppies’ social learning.
D. It required the observation of guppies under conditions that closely mimicked the conditions of guppies in the wild.
E. It indicated that guppies gain adaptive information from being reared with a relatively large number of conspecifics.
白话版讲解:
A)Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人的那个研究起初不是为了研究social learning,是为了研究别的。三个人只是从一个新的角度来研究social learning,不是为了研究别的。所以A选项错误。
B)Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人的那个研究要求在guppy生命的多个时间节点观察guppies。这里我们要注意文章第四句话:This counterintuitive finding is explained by the fact that guppies reared in the high-density condition were less likely to shoal (swim in a group) with others……请注意the fact这个词,这个fact只能是Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人去观察到了,再注意rear这个词,只能是是Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人去养。另外,第六句话对的early development environment就是guppy小时候的环境(是在大群里养还是在小群里养)。我们还可以合理推测,在guppy小的时候(无论是大群还是小群中),Chapman、Ward和 Krause还必须通过多次观察,排除一种可能,guppy不是小时候本来就会foraging技术的。这些都需要观察。长大以后的learning部分,也需要观察。所以就是必须在guppy生命的多个时间节点都要观测,B选项正确。
C)鱼群大小和学习能力有关系,而不是没有关系。所以C选项错误。
D)Chapman、Ward和 Krause研究中,实验环境必须高度模拟大自然中guppies生活的环境。很多人想选这个选项,包括很多机构给出的解析也是。下面我们来看一下为什么不对。首先,文章第一句话提到,“(此前已经较好地用书面或照片形式)记录了在各种鱼类中存在社会性学习行为这种行为”,有没有说是记录的是各种鱼类在大自然中的情况呢?没有。其次,文章有没有说,Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人的那个研究,实验目的就是研究guppies在大自然中的社会学学习行为呢?没有。我们可以合理推测,Chapman、Ward和 Krause三个人的那个研究,可能是为了最终研究明白guppies在大自然中的社会学学习行为做准备。但是从文章中看,那个研究本身,并没有说要一步到位,仅通过这一个实验,就要研究明白guppies在大自然中的社会学学习行为,所以他这个实验可以高度模拟大自然中的guppies生活的环境,也可以不。至于到底有没有高度模拟大自然中的guppies生活的环境,我们不知道,我们仅仅根据文章推不出来。所以D选项错误。
E)Chapman、Ward和 Krause研究表明,guppies通过在大群中养大,就可以获悉“别的鱼学习新技能”这样的信息。这个说法和文章第四句话正好相反。所以E选项错误。